The Muscular System
The muscular system includes over 700 skeletal
muscles that are directly or indirectly attached to
the skeleton by tendons or aponeuroses. The muscular
system produces movement, as the contractions
of skeletal muscles pull on the attached
bones. Muscular activity does not always result in
movement, however; it can also be important in
stabilizing skeletal elements and preventing movement.
Skeletal muscles are also important in
guarding entrances or exits of internal passageways,
such as those of the digestive, respiratory,
urinary, or reproductive systems, and in generating
heat to maintain our stable body temperatures.
Skeletal muscles contract only under the command
of the nervous system. For this reason, clinical
observation of muscular activity may provide
direct information about the muscular system, and
indirect information about the nervous system. The
assessment of facial expressions, posture, speech,
and gait can be an important part of the physical
examination. Classical signs of muscle disorders
include the following:
• Gower’s sign is a distinctive method of standing
from a sitting or lying position on the floor.
This method is used by children with muscular
dystrophy (p. 65). They move from a sitting
position to a standing position by pushing the
trunk off the floor with the hands and then
moving the hands to the knees. The hands are
then used as braces to force the body into the
standing position. This extra support is necessary
because the pelvic muscles are too weak
to swing the weight of the trunk over the legs.
• Ptosis is a drooping of the upper eyelid. It may
be seen in myasthenia gravis (p. 66), botulism
(p. 65), myotonic dystrophy (p. 65), or following
damage to the cranial nerve (N III) innervating
the levator palpabrae superioris muscle of the
eyelid.
• A muscle mass, an abnormal dense region within
a muscle, is sometimes seen or felt in a skeletal
muscle. A muscle mass may result from torn
muscle or tendon tissue, a hematoma, or the
deposition of bone around a skeletal muscle, as
in myositis ossificans.
• Abnormal contractions may indicate problems
with the muscle tissue or its innervation. Muscle
spasticity exists when a muscle has excessive
muscle tone. A muscle spasm is a sudden,
strong, and painful involuntary contraction.
• Muscle flaccidity exists when the relaxed skeletal
muscle appears soft and relaxed and its
contractions are very weak or absent.
• Muscle atrophy is skeletal muscle deterioration,
or wasting, due to disuse, immobility, or interference
with the normal muscle innervation.
• Abnormal patterns of muscle movement, such
as tics, choreiform movements, or tremors, and
muscular paralysis are usually caused by nervous
system disorders. These movements will
be described further in sections dealing with
abnormal nervous system function.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM
DISORDERS
Two common symptoms of muscular disorders are
pain and weakness in the affected skeletal muscles.
The potential causes of muscle pain include:
1. Muscle trauma: Examples of traumatic injuries
to a skeletal muscle would include a laceration,
a deep bruise or crushing injury, a muscle tear,
or a damaged tendon.
2. Muscle infection: Skeletal muscles may be
infected by viruses, as in some forms of myositis,
or colonized by parasitic worms, such as
those responsible for trichinosis (p. 64). These
infections usually produce pain that is restricted
to the involved muscles. Diffuse muscle pain
may develop in the course of other infectious
diseases, such as influenza or measles.
3. Related problems with the skeletal system:
Muscle pain may result from skeletal problems,
such as arthritis (p. 59) or a sprained ligament
near the point of muscle origin or insertion.
4. Problems with the nervous system: Muscle pain
may be experienced due to inflammation of
sensory neurons or stimulation of pain pathways
in the CNS.
Muscle strength can be evaluated by applying
an opposite force against a specific action. For
example, the examiner might exert a gentle extending
force while asking the patient to flex the arm.
Because the muscular and nervous systems are so
closely interrelated, a single symptom, such as
muscle weakness, can have a variety of different
causes (Figure A-22). Muscle weakness may also
develop as a consequence of a condition that affects
the entire body, such as anemia or acute starvation.
Figure A-23 (p. 64) provides an overview of
muscular system disorders.
Necrotizing Fasciitis EAP p. 178
Several bacteria produce enzymes such as
hyaluronidase or cysteine protease. Hyaluronidase
breaks down hyaluronic acid and the proteoglycans
(large polysaccharide molecules linked by polypeptide
chains) that make up the intercellular cement
between adjacent cells. Cysteine protease breaks
down conective tissue proteins. These bacteria are
dangerous because they can spread rapidly by
liquifying the matrix and dissolving the intercellular
cement that holds epithelial cells together. The
streptococci are one group of bacteria that secrete
both of these enzymes. Streptococcus A bacteria are
62 The Body Systems: Clinical and Applied Topics
7
involved in many human diseases, most notably
“strep throat,” a pharyngeal infection. In most
cases the immune response is sufficient to contain
and ultimately defeat these bacteria before extensive
tissue damage has occurred.
However, in 1994 tabloid newspapers had a field
day recounting stories of “killer bugs” and “flesh-eating
bacteria” that terrorized residents of the city of
Gloucester, England. The details were horrific—
minor cuts become major open wounds, with interior
connective tissues dissolving. There were only 7
reported cases, but 5 of the victims died. The
pathogen responsible was a strain of Streptococcus A
that overpowered immune defenses and swiftly
invaded and destroyed soft tissues. More over, the
pathogens eroded their way along the fascial wrapping
that covers skeletal muscles and other organs.
The term for this condition is necrotizing fasciitis.
The Muscular System 63
7
Primary
Muscular System
Disorders
Nervous System
Disorders
SYMPTOM:
MUSCLE WEAKNESS
Cardiovascular
problems
Anemia
Heart failure
Vascular blockage
Probable immune
disorders
Myasthenia
gravis
Guillain–Barré
syndrome
Metabolic or
nutritional problems
Electrolyte disturbances
(ex.: hypercalcemia,
hypocalcemia)
Starvation
Problems with
motor pathways
Spinal cord
injuries
Multiple
sclerosis
Demyelination
disorders
Problems at
synaptic knobs
in neuromuscular
junctions
Botulism
Other neurotoxins
Myositis
Trichinosis
Muscular dystrophies
Myotonic dystrophy
Muscular bruise
or tear
Infection
Trauma
Problems with
peripheral nerves
Trauma
Demyelination
disorders
Diphtheria
Inherited disorders
Destruction of
motor neurons
Stroke
Polio
Rabies
Huntington’s
disease
Figure A-22 Potential Causes of Muscle Weakness
In some cases the muscle tissue was also destroyed,
a condition called myositis.
The problem is not restricted to the United
Kingdom. Some form of very aggressive infectious
soft tissue invasion occurs roughly 75–150 times
annually in the U.S. At present it is uncertain
whether the recent surge in myositis and necrotizing
faciitis reflects increased awareness of the condition
or the appearance of a new strain of strep bacteria.
Trichinosis EAP p. 178
Trichinosis (trik-i-N≪-sis; trichos, hair + nosos,
disease) results from infection by a parasitic nematode
worm, Trichinella spiralis. Symptoms include
diarrhea, weakness, and muscle pain. The muscular
symptoms are caused by the invasion of skeletal
muscle tissue by larval worms, which create
small pockets within the perimysium and endomysium.
Muscles of the tongue, eyes, diaphragm,
chest, and leg are most often affected.
Larvae are common in the flesh of pigs, horses,
dogs, and other mammals. The larvae are killed
when the meat is cooked; people are most often
exposed by eating undercooked pork. Once eaten,
the larvae mature within the intestinal tract, where
they mate and produce eggs. The new generation of
larvae then migrates through the body tissues to
reach the muscles, where they complete their early
development. The migration and subsequent settling
produce a generalized achiness, muscle and
joint pain, and swelling in infected tissues. An estimated
1.5 million Americans carry Trichinella
around in their muscles, and up to 300,000 new
infections occur each year. The mortality rate for
people who have symptoms severe enough to
require treatment is approximately 1 percent.
Fibromyalgia and Chronic
Fatigue Syndrome EAP p. 178
Fibromyalgia (-algia, pain) is a disorder that has
formally been recognized only since the mid-1980s.
Although first described in the early 1800s, the
condition is still somewhat controversial because
the reported symptoms cannot be linked to any
anatomical or physiological abnormalities.
However, physicians now recognize a distinctive
pattern of symptoms that warrant consideration as
a clinical entity.
Fibromyalgia may be the most common musculoskeletal
disorder affecting women under 40 years
of age. There may be as many as 6 million cases in
the United States today. Symptoms include chronic
64 The Body Systems: Clinical and Applied Topics
7
Infection
Inherited disorders Tumors
Myomas
Sarcomas
Trauma
Hernias
Compartment syndrome
Bruises and tears
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Secondary disorders
Nervous system:
Botulism
Poliomyelitis
Myasthenia gravis
Immune problems:
Cardiovascular system:
Anemia
Heart failure
Metabolic problems:
Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia
Myositis
Necrotizing fasciitis
Tetanus
Trichinosis
Fibromyalgia
Muscular dystrophy
Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy
MUSCLE
DISORDERS
Figure A-23 Disorders of the Muscular System
aches, pain, and stiffness and multiple tender
points at specific, characteristic locations. The four
most common tender points are (1) just below the
kneecap, (2, 3) distal to the medial and lateral epicondyles
of the humerus, and (4) the junction
between the second rib and the cartilage attaching
it to the sternum. An additional clinical criterion is
that the pains and stiffness cannot be explained by
other mechanisms. Individuals with this condition
frequently report chronic fatigue; they feel tired on
awakening and often complain of awakening
repeatedly during the night.
Most of these symptoms could be attributed to
other problems. For example, chronic depression can
lead to fatigue and poor-quality sleep. As a result, the
pattern of tender points is really the diagnostic key to
fibromyalgia. This symptom distinguishes fibromyalgia
from chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). The current
symptoms accepted as a definition of CFS
include (1) sudden onset, usually following a viral
infection, (2) disabling fatigue, (3) muscle weakness
and pain, (4) sleep disturbance, (5) fever, and (6)
enlargement of cervical lymph nodes.
Attempts to link either fibromyalgia or CFS to a
viral infection or to some physical or psychological
trauma have not been successful, and the cause
remains unknown. Treatment is limited to relieving
symptoms when possible. For example, anti-inflammatory
medications may help relieve pain, drugs
can be used to promote sleep, and exercise programs
may help maintain normal range of motion.
The Muscular Dystrophies
EAP p. 185
The muscular dystrophies (DIS-tr|-fƒz) are inherited
diseases that produce progressive muscle
weakness and deterioration. One of the most common
and best understood conditions is
Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy (DMD). This
form of muscular dystrophy appears in childhood,
often between the ages of 3 and 7. The condition
generally affects only males. A progressive muscular
weakness develops, and the individual usually
dies before age 20 because of respiratory paralysis.
Skeletal muscles are primarily affected, although
for some reason the facial muscles continue to
function normally. In later stages of the disease,
the facial muscles and cardiac muscle tissue may
also become involved.
The skeletal muscle fibers in a person with
DMD patient are structurally different from those
of other individuals. Abnormal membrane permeability,
cholesterol content, rates of protein synthesis,
and enzyme composition have been reported.
DMD sufferers also lack a protein, called dystrophin,
found in normal muscle fibers. It is
attached to the inner surface of the sarcolemma
near the triads. Although the functions of this protein
remain uncertain, dystrophin is suspected to
play a role in the regulation of calcium ion channels
in the sarcolemma. In children with DMD, calcium
channels remain open for an extended period,
and calcium levels rise to the point that key proteins
denature. The muscle fiber then degenerates.
Researchers have recently identified and cloned the
gene for dystrophin; that gene is located on the X
chromosome. Rats with DMD have been cured by
insertion of this gene into their muscle fibers, a
technique that may eventually be used to treat
human patients.
The inheritance of DMD is sex-linked: Women
carrying the defective genes are unaffected, but each
of their male children will have a 50 percent chance
of developing DMD. Now that the specific location of
the gene has been identified, it is possible to determine
whether or not a woman is carrying the defective
gene. It is also possible to use an innovative
prenatal test to determine if a fetus has this condition.
In this procedure, a small sample of fluid is collected
from the membranous sac that surrounds the
fetus. This fluid contains fetal cells, called amniocytes,
that are collected and cultivated in the laboratory.
Researchers then insert a gene, called MyoD,
that triggers their differentiation into skeletal muscle
fibers. These cells can then be tested not only for the
signs of muscular dystrophy but for indications of
other inherited muscular disorders.
MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY. Myotonic dystrophy is
a form of muscular dystrophy that occurs in the
united states at an incidence of 13.5 per 100,000
population. Symptoms may develop in infancy, but
more often develop after puberty. As with other
forms of muscular dystrophy, adults developing
myotonic dystrophy experience a gradual reduction
in muscle strength and control. Problems with other
systems, especially cardiovascular and digestive systems,
often develop. There is no effective treatment.
The inheritance of myotonic dystrophy is
unusual because children of an individual with
myotonic dystrophy commonly develop more severe
symptoms than those of the parent. The increased
severity of the condition appears to be related to
the presence of multiple copies of a specific gene on
chromosome 19. For some reason, the nucleotide
sequence of that gene gets repeated several times,
and the number can increase from generation to
generation. This has been called a “genetic stutter.”
The greater the number of copies, the more severe
the symptoms. It is not known why the stutter
develops, nor how the genetic duplication affects
the severity of the condition.
Botulism EAP p. 184
Botulinus (bot-≈-LI ¯-nus) toxin prevents the release
of ACh at the synaptic terminal. It thus produces a
severe and potentially fatal paralysis of skeletal
muscles. A case of botulinus poisoning is called
botulism.1 The toxin is produced by a bacterium,
Clostridium botulinum, that does not need oxygen to
grow and reproduce. Because the organism can live
The Muscular System 65
7
1This disorder was described 200 years ago by German
physicians treating patients poisoned by dining on contaminated
sausages. Botulus is the Latin word for sausage.
quite well in a sealed can or jar, most cases of botulism
are linked to improper canning or storing procedures,
followed by failure to cook the food
adequately before eating. Canned tuna or beets,
smoked fish, and cold soups have most often been
involved with cases of botulism. Boiling for a half
hour destroys both the toxin and the bacteria.
Symptoms usually begin 12–36 hours after eating
a contaminated meal. The initial symptoms are
often disturbances in vision, such as seeing double
or a painful sensitivity to bright lights. These
symptoms are followed by other sensory and motor
problems, including blurred speech and an inability
to stand or walk. Roughly half of botulism
patients experience intense nausea and vomiting.
These symptoms persist for a variable period (days
to weeks), followed by a gradual recovery; some
patients are still recovering after a year.
The major risk of botulinus poisoning is respiratory
paralysis and death by suffocation.
Treatment is supportive: bed rest, observation,
and, if necessary, use of a mechanical respirator.
In severe cases drugs that promote the release of
ACh, such as guanidine hydrochloride, may be
administered. The overall mortality rate in the
United States is about 10 percent.
Myasthenia Gravis EAP p. 184
Myasthenia gravis (ma-as-TH￢-nƒ-uh GRA-vis) is
characterized by a general muscular weakness that
is often most pronounced in the muscles of the
arms, head, and chest. The first symptom is usually
a weakness of the eye muscles and drooping eyelids.
Facial muscles are often weak as well, and the
individual develops a peculiar smile known as the
“myasthenic snarl.” As the disease progresses,
pharyngeal weakness leads to problems with chewing
and swallowing, and it becomes difficult to hold
the head upright.
The muscles of the upper chest and upper
extremities are next to be affected. All the voluntary
muscles of the body may ultimately be
involved. Severe myasthenia gravis produces respiratory
paralysis, with a mortality rate of 5–10 percent.
However, the disease does not always
progress to such a life-threatening stage. For
example, roughly 20 percent of patients experience
eye problems with no other symptoms.
The condition results from a decrease in the
number of ACh receptors on the motor end plate.
Before the remaining receptors can be stimulated
enough to trigger a strong contraction, the ACh
molecules are destroyed by cholinesterase. As a
result, muscular weakness develops.
The primary cause of myasthenia gravis
appears to be a malfunction of the immune system.
Roughly 70 percent of the individuals with myasthenia
gravis have an abnormal thymus, an organ
involved with the maintenance of normal immune
function. In myasthenia gravis, the immune
response attacks the ACh receptors of the motor
end plate as if they were foreign proteins. For
unknown reasons, women are affected twice as
often as men. Estimates of the incidence of this
disease in the United States range from 2 to 10
cases per 100,000 population.
One approach to therapy involves the administration
of drugs, such as neostigmine, that are
termed cholinesterase inhibitors. As their name
implies, these compounds are enzyme inhibitors;
they tie up the active sites at which cholinesterase
normally binds ACh. With cholinesterase activity
reduced, the concentration of ACh at the synapse
can rise enough to stimulate the surviving receptors
and produce muscle contraction.
Polio EAP p. 184
Because skeletal muscles depend on their motor
neurons for stimulation, disorders that affect the
nervous system can have an indirect affect on the
muscular system. The poliovirus is a virus that
does not produce clinical symptoms in roughly 95
percent of infected individuals. The virus produces
variable symptoms in the remaining 5 percent.
Some individuals develop a nonspecific illness
resembling the flu. A second group of individuals
develop a brief meningitis (p. 74), an inflammation
of the protective membranes surrounding the CNS.
In the third group of people, the virus attacks
somatic motor neurons in the CNS.
In this third form of the disease, the individual
develops a fever 7–14 days after infection. The fever
subsides, but recurs roughly a week later, accompanied
by muscle pain, cramping, and paralysis of
one or more limbs. Respiratory paralysis may also
occur, and the mortality rate for this form of polio
is 2–5 percent for children and 15–30 percent of
adults. If the individual survives, some degree of
recovery usually occurs over a period of up to 6
months.
For unknown reasons, the survivors of paralytic
polio may develop progressive muscular weakness
20–30 years after the initial infection. This
postpolio syndrome is characterized by fatigue,
muscle pain, and weakness, and, in some cases,
muscular atrophy. There is no treatment for this
condition, although rest seems to help.
Polio has been almost completely eliminated
from the U.S. population due to a successful
immunization program. In 1954 there were 18,000
new cases in the United States; there were 8 in
1976, and none since 1994. The World Health
Organization now reports that polio has been eradicated
from the entire Western Hemisphere.
Unfortunately, many parents refuse to immunize
their children against the poliovirus, because they
assume that the disease has been “conquered.”
Failure to immunize is a mistake because (1) there
is still no cure for polio, (2) the virus remains in the
environment in many areas of the world, and (3) up
to 38 percent of children ages 1–4 have not been
immunized. A major epidemic could therefore
develop very quickly if the virus were brought into
the United States from another part of the world.
66 The Body Systems: Clinical and Applied Topics
7
Hernias EAP p. 204
When the abdominal muscles contract forcefully,
pressure in the abdominopelvic cavity can increase
dramatically, and those pressures are applied to
internal organs. If the individual exhales at the same
time, the pressure is relieved, because the
diaphragm can move upward as the lungs collapse.
But during vigorous isometric exercises or when lifting
a weight while holding one’s breath, pressure in
the abdominopelvic cavity can rise to 106 kg/cm2
(1500 lb/in.2), roughly 100 times normal pressures.
Pressures this high can cause a variety of problems,
among them the development of a hernia.
A hernia develops when a visceral organ protrudes
abnormally through an opening in a muscular
wall or partition. There are many types of
hernias; we will consider only inguinal (groin) hernias
and diaphragmatic hernias here.
Late in the development of the male, the testes
descend into the scrotum by passing through the
abdominal wall at the inguinal canals. In the adult
male, the spermatic ducts and associated blood
vessels penetrate the abdominal musculature at
the inguinal canals on their way to the abdominal
reproductive organs. In an inguinal hernia, the
inguinal canal enlarges, and the abdominal contents
such as a portion of the intestine (or more
rarely the bladder) are forced into the inguinal
canal (Figure A-24). If the herniated structures
become trapped or twisted within the inguinal sac,
surgery may be required to prevent serious complications.
Inguinal hernias are not always caused by
unusually high abdominal pressures. Injuries to
the abdomen, or inherited weakness or distensibility
of the canal, may have the same effect.
The esophagus and major blood vessels pass
through an opening in the diaphragm, the muscle
that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities. In a diaphragmatic hernia, also called a
hiatal hernia (ha-￡-tal; hiatus, a gap or opening),
abdominal organs slide into the thoracic cavity,
most often through the esophageal hiatus, the
opening used by the esophagus. The severity of the
condition will depend on the location and size of
the herniated organ(s). Hiatal hernias are actually
very common, and most go unnoticed. Radiologists
see them in about 30 percent of individuals whose
upper gastrointestinal tracts are examined with
barium contrast techniques. When clinical complications
develop, they usually occur because
abdominal organs that have pushed into the thoracic
cavity are exerting pressure on structures or
organs there. As is the case with inguinal hernias,
a diaphragmatic hernia may result from congenital
factors or from an injury that weakens or tears the
diaphragmatic muscle.
Sports Injuries EAP p. 208
Sports injuries affect amateurs and professionals
alike. A 5-year study of college football players
indicated that 73.5 percent experienced mild
injuries, 21.5 percent moderate injuries, and 11.6
percent severe injuries during their playing
careers. Contact sports are not the only activities
that show a significant injury rate; a study of 1650
joggers running at least 27 miles per week reported
1819 injuries in a single year.
Muscles and bones respond to increased use
by enlarging and strengthening. Poorly conditioned
individuals are therefore more likely to subject
their bones and muscles to intolerable stresses
than are people in good condition. Training is also
important in minimizing the use of antagonistic
muscle groups and keeping joint movements within
the intended ranges of motion. Planned warm-up
exercises before athletic events stimulate circulation,
improve muscular performance and control,
and help prevent injuries to muscles, joints, and
ligaments. Stretching exercises stimulate muscle
circulation and help keep ligaments and joint capsules
supple. Such conditioning extends the range
of motion and prevents sprains and strains when
sudden loads are applied.
Dietary planning can also be important in preventing
injuries to muscles during endurance
events, such as marathon running. Emphasis has
often been placed on the importance of carbohydrates,
leading to the practice of “carbohydrate
loading” before a marathon. But while operating
within aerobic limits, muscles also utilize amino
acids extensively, so an adequate diet must include
both carbohydrates and proteins.
Improved playing conditions, equipment, and
regulations also play a role in reducing the incidence
of sports injuries. Jogging shoes, ankle or
knee braces, helmets, and body padding are examples
of equipment that can be effective. The substantial
penalties now earned for personal fouls in
contact sports have reduced the numbers of neck
and knee injuries.
Several injuries common to those engaged in
active sports may also affect nonathletes, although
The Muscular System 67
7
External
abdominal
oblique
Inguinal
canal
External
inguinal
ring
Spermatic
cord
Herniated
intestine
Inguinal
hernia
Figure A-24 An Inguinal Hernia
CRITICAL-THINKING QUESTIONS
3-1. A patient experiencing a severe hyperkalemia
could have the following related problems:
a. a below-normal potassium ion concentration
of the interstitial fluid
b. a more-negative membrane potential of
nerves and muscles
c. unresponsive skeletal muscles and cardiac
arrest
d. muscle weakness and increased strength of
twitch contractions
e. all of the above
3-2. Making hospital rounds, Dr. R., an anesthesiologist,
meets with a first-semester anatomy
and physiology student named CeCe who is scheduled
for surgery the next day. Having just finished
the unit on skeletal muscles and the nervous system,
CeCe is eager to learn about the anesthesia
that will be used during the surgery. Dr. R.
explains he will be using a drug, succinyl choline,
that competes with acetylcholine and blocks the
action of this neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular
junction. What effect will this have on CeCe’s
skeletal muscles?
a. produce paralysis of all the skeletal muscles
b. cause tetany of the skeletal muscles
c. increase the force and strength of muscle
contractions
CeCe answers this question correctly but becomes
immediately concerned about this effect on a select
group of skeletal muscles. What is CeCe concerned
about?
3-3. Tom broke his right leg in a football game.
After six weeks in a cast, the cast is finally
removed, and when he takes his first few steps, he
loses his balance and falls. What is the most likely
explanation?
a. the bone fracture is not completely healed
b. the right leg muscles have atrophied due to
disuse
c. Tom has an undiagnosed neuromuscular
disorder
3-4. Samples of muscle tissue are taken from a
champion tennis player and a nonathlete of the
same age and gender. Both samples are subjected
to enzyme analysis. How would you expect the two
samples to differ?
3-5. Calvin steps into a pothole and twists his
ankle. He is in a great deal of pain and cannot stand.
In the hospital, the examining physician notes that
Calvin can plantar flex and dorsiflex the foot, but he
cannot perform inversion without extreme pain.
Which muscle has probably been injured?
the primary causes may differ. A partial listing of
activity-related conditions includes the following:
• Bone bruise: Bleeding within the periosteum of
a bone
• Bursitis: Inflammation of the bursae around
one or more joints
• Muscle cramps: Prolonged, involuntary, and
painful muscular contractions
• Sprains: Tears or breaks in ligaments or tendons
• Strains: Tears in muscles
• Stress fractures: Cracks or breaks in bones
subjected to repeated stresses or trauma
• Tendinitis: Inflammation of the connective tissue
surrounding a tendon
Many of these conditions have been discussed in
previous chapters.
Finally, many sports injuries would be prevented
if people who engage in regular exercise used
common sense and recognized their personal limitations.
It can be argued that some athletic events,
such as the ultramarathon, place such excessive
stresses on the cardiovascular, muscular, respiratory,
and urinary systems that they cannot be recommended,
even for athletes in peak condition.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome EAP p. 211
Tenosynovitis is the inflammation of a tendon
sheath. Carpal tunnel syndrome results from
tenosynovitis of the tendon sheath surrounding the
flexor tendons of the palm. The inflammation leads
to compression of the median nerve, a mixed (sensory
and motor) nerve that innervates the palm.
Symptoms include pain, especially on palmar flexion,
a tingling sensation or numbness on the palm,
and weakness in the abductor pollicis. This condition
is fairly common and often strikes those
engaged in repetitive hand movements, such as
typing, working at a computer keyboard, or playing
the piano. Treatment involves administration of
anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, injection
of anti-inflammatory agents, such as glucocorticoids
(steroid hormones produced by the adrenal
cortex), and use of splints to prevent wrist flexion
and stabilize the region.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is an example of a
cumulative trauma disorder, or overuse syndrome.
These disorders are caused by repetitive movements
of the arms, hands, and fingers. These musculoskeletal
problems now account for over 50
percent of all work-related injuries in the United
States.
68 The Body Systems: Clinical and Applied Topics
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